Exploring AM fungal development across individual fungal hypha, hyphal networks and fungal spores

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are cellular powerhouses with complex structures that let them trade nutrients with plants. Unlocking their potential could boost agriculture and ecosystem resilience.

Ever wonder about the extraordinary cellular contents of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, and how the unique arrangement of these contents enables complex flows and nutrient exchange processes across open-pipe networks? This paper is a deep dive into cell wall composition, cytoplasmic contents, nuclear and lipid organisation and dynamics, network architecture, and connectivity.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi live in partnership with most land plants. They help plants absorb nutrients like phosphorus and nitrogen, making crops and natural ecosystems healthier and more resilient. But to fully use their potential in farming and conservation, we need to understand how these fungi are built and how they work inside plant roots.

We reviewed new discoveries from advanced microscopes and molecular tools that let scientists look closely at the cells and internal structures of these fungi.

We found that:

1. AM fungi contain many nuclei in a single cell, and these nuclei move and interact dynamically.

2. Inside plant roots, the fungi form tiny tree-like structures called arbuscules that act as nutrient exchange hubs.

3. Their spores are complex, with multiple protective layers and internal parts that help them survive tough conditions and spread.

4. Recent research shows how their inner “machinery” (ie cytoskeleton and transport systems) helps them grow and connect with plants.

This research is important because knowing how AM fungi are organized at the cellular level helps explain how they support plant growth. This knowledge can be applied in agriculture to reduce fertilizer use, improve soil health, and strengthen crops against climate challenges.

SUMMARY

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi are ancient and widespread symbionts that support most land plants by improving nutrient uptake and stress tolerance. Despite their ecological and agricultural importance, many aspects of their cellular structure and development remain poorly understood. This limits deeper insight into how they function within plant roots and soils.

This study synthesizes recent advances in microscopy, cell biology, and molecular genetics to describe the internal organization of AM fungi. We examine spore structure, nuclear organization, cytoskeletal dynamics, and the specialized cells involved in plant–fungus interactions.

Findings:

1. AM fungi are multinucleate organisms with dynamic nuclear behavior and compartmentalized cytoplasm.

2. Specialized structures like arbuscules (branched hyphae within root cells) and haustoria-like interfaces facilitate nutrient exchange with plants.

3. Spores contain complex wall layers and diverse organelles, highlighting adaptations for survival and dispersal.

4. Advances in live-cell imaging and molecular tools are revealing new details about cytoskeletal regulation, vesicle trafficking, and metabolic compartmentalization.

Understanding the cellular anatomy of AM fungi deepens knowledge of their symbiotic mechanisms and evolutionary strategies. This foundation supports applications in agriculture, where enhancing AM fungal symbioses could improve crop nutrition, reduce fertilizer dependence, and boost resilience under climate stress.